Will Computers Control Humans In The Future Essays (885 words)

Will Computers Control Humans In The Future? Will computers control humans in the future? People always tend to seek the easy way out looking for something that would make their lives easier. Machines and tools have given us the ability to do more in less time giving us, at the same time, more comfort. As the technology advances, computers become faster and more powerful. These new machines are enabling us to do more in less time making our lives easier. The increased use of computers in the future, however, might have negative results and impact on our lives. In the novel Nine Tomorrows Isaac Asimov often criticizes our reliance on computers by portraying a futuristic world where computers control humans. One of the images which Asimov describes in the book is that humans might become too dependent on computers. In one of the stories, Profession, Asimov writes about people being educated by computer programs designed to educate effortlessly a person. According to the Profession story people would no longer read books to learn and improve their knowledge. People would rely on the computers rather than try to memorize enough to match someone else who knows (Nine Tomorrows, Profession 55). People would not chose to study, they would only want to be educated by computer tapes. Putting in knowledge would take less time than reading books and memorizing something that would take almost no time using a computer in the futuristic world that Asimov describes. Humans might began to rely on computers and allow them to control themselves by letting computers educate people. Computers would start teaching humans what computers tell them without having any choice of creativity. Computers would star t to control humans' lives and make humans become too dependent on the computers. Another point that is criticized by Asimov is the fact that people might take their knowledge for granted allowing computers to take over and control their lives. In a story called The Feeling of Power, Asimov portrays how people started using computers to do even simple mathematical calculations. Over a long period of time people became so reliable on computers that they forgot the simplest multiplication and division rules. If someone wanted to calculate an answer they would simply use their pocket computer to do that (The Feeling of Power 77). People became too independent from the start making them forget what they have learned in the past. People in the story The Feeling of Power would take for granted what they have learned over centuries of learning and chose computers because of their ability to do their work faster. The lack of manual mathematics, which people chose to forget in the story, caused computers to be the ones to solve simple mathematic problems for the people tak ing control of the humans by doing the work for them (The Feeling of Power 81-82). The reliance of computers went to such an extent that even Humans began to use computers in all fields of study and work allowing computers to control their lives by taking over and doing everything for them. According to another story in the book, Asimov also describes how computers would be able to predict probabilities of an event, future. In the story All the Troubles of the World one big computer predicted crime before it even happened, allowing the police to take the person who was going to commit the crime and release him/her after the danger has passed (All The Troubles of The World 144-145). This computer, called Multivac, controlled humans by telling the authorities about who was going to commit a crime causing someone to be imprisoned until the danger has passed. It was the computer that made the decision of someone's freedom or imprisonment and that controlled others to arrest a person it suspected of committing a crime controlling his/her destiny. The decision of imprisoning someone for a crime a person did not commit was all in the hands of a computer. It was the computer that controlled humans and their destiny and controlling other humans who believed in everything that co mputer told them. Multivac could not only predict the future but it also could answer many questions that would normally embarrass people if they would have to

Counselor and Ethical Boundaries

Counselor and Ethical Boundaries Introduction Boundary issues in counseling result from failure of a counselor to stick to the limits to which he/she is professionally authorized regarding a client. As a counselor, I have to ensure that my relationships with clients remain professional when delivering psychological services within the restrictive parameters that are safe for clients.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Counselor and Ethical Boundaries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Dual relationships, on the other hand, refer to a situation where, in addition to profession relationship, a significant emotional relationship exists between the client and the counselor. This dual relationship is generally unfit for professional counseling, since there will be power imbalance that may negatively influence the counseling process (Syme, 2003, p.6). Boundary Issues and Dual Relationships Various issues exist in relation to situations pertaining to ethical a nd appropriate professional relationships between the counselor and the client. Boundaries to a counselor might include the fee charged, time span of the counseling sessions, level of personal disclosure, and physical contact. The primary concern of counselors is establishment of boundaries and management with respect to individual clients, where the counselor focuses on delivering services beneficial for clients. Although determination of whether acts are appropriate or ethical may be difficult, the above criteria can clearly distinguish their appropriateness. Observation of these boundary issues and dual relationships is paramount, considering the existence of inherent power imbalance where the client trusts the therapist’s expertise, and therefore discloses personal information (Pope, Tabachnick Keith-Spiegel, 1987). There are situations where dual relationships are complex and ambiguous. In this case, there is a need for application of a decision-making model where clien ts are involved in discussions to maintain professionalism. In my place of counseling in the community, it coincidentally happens that among the clients who come for counseling services are my students whom I teach in college. In this case, an ambiguous dual and complex relationship exists. In such a case, there must be a discussion with clients in order to avoid interactions that may hamper success of counseling services. Over and above discussion and avoidance, therapists may choose to terminate the therapy process in order to observe the codes of conduct. As a counselor, I may be involved in community projects of my interest, where I am appointed as a board member. It coincidentally happens that among the board members are my clients who go ahead to meet me in person during the board meetings, and openly admit being glad of sharing similar interest and characteristics in the community. These situations call for one-on-one discussion with clients to enable distinction of the two r elationships.Advertising Looking for report on ethics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More One example of a complex dual relationship may occur in a case when an unmarried counselor is celebrating a special day, and in the process, a friendly couple joins his celebration and decides to take charge of organizing the occasion and inviting other people. The couple also invites another single person of the opposite sex, a situation that happens to be a blind date for the counselor. Coincidentally, the blind date turns out to be one of the counselor’s clients, thus resulting in a complex dual relationship. As a counselor, agreeing into the invitation is fine, but clear-cut distinctions of both relationships must be established through personal discussion with the client. The same decision model can be applied to a scenario where close friends come for counseling services, putting pressure on the counselor to pay specia l attention to them considering that his services are the only relevant and available counseling services in the community (Borys Pope, 1989). Thinking Development about Ethics Dual Relationships and boundary issues with respect to professional counseling can be generally concluded as a result of therapists being members of the community. Generally, dual relationships cannot be avoided, since counselors carry out their day-to-day activities within the community and more so, they have their own interests and livelihoods. In a case where a counselor is elected to membership of a community project boards in which one of the clients is also a member, there arises an issue of complexity with respect to a dual relationship. Modification of thought in such issues of complexity bases its claims on the fact that counselors cannot continuously deny the opportunity of advancing their interests in order to avoid dual relationships with clients. In order to resolve issues related to the dual re lationships, new ways of managing dual relationships should be put in place rather than evade the relationships. Dual relationships widely vary and may include social, professional, business, communal, and even institutional relationships. These relationships often result in complex professionalism issues that are ambiguous and difficult to resolve. Dynamic views towards these complexities involve distinctive dual relationships where counseling is completely separated from the emotional relations shared outside the profession. The client should understand that the counselor has a duty to observe professional codes of conduct irrespective of other relationships. At work, both the client and therapist must make the assumption that no other relationship exists, and that the right to this distinction during interactions outside therapy is paramount. References Borys, D.S., Pope, K.S. (1989) Dual relationships between therapist and client: A national study of psychologists, psychiatrist s, and social workers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 20(5); 283-293.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Counselor and Ethical Boundaries specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Pope, K.S., Tabachnick, B.G., Keith-Spiegel, P. (1987) Ethics of practice: The beliefs and behaviors of psychologists as therapists. American Psychologist, 42(11); 993-1006. Syme, G. (2003) Dual Relationships in Counseling and Psychotherapy: Exploring the Limits. NY: SAGE.

Journal Article Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Journal Article Review - Essay Example This indicates that she is well qualified in the academic field which is the subject of this paper, and has experience of living and working in the United States, This is an empirical study which explores how editors of online news perceive their role, especially in terms of an assumed â€Å"gatekeeper† (p. 265) function which entails sifting the available information and packaging it for readers. It considers in particular the question of how editors view the democratizing impact of the internet, which allows anyone and everyone to publish news-related material, and whether this has influenced the way that editors perceive their role. An extensive literature is conducted, covering such themes as the difficulty of defining interactivity in online news offerings and the concept of an active audience which is enabled to co-construct the news that is published. The case of politicians is cited as an example of informed users turning the potential of the internet towards traditional purposes, such as â€Å"to exercise message control† (p. 267) rather than to develop new ones which utilize all the capabilities of the internet. There are three research questions, exploring 1) what editors affiliated with newspaper-affiliated Websites saw as their goals and their major achievements covering the 2004 political campaign; 2) the extent to which these editors relinquished their gatekeeping role by allowing users to provide or personalize content and 3) whether these editors had changed their views since the year 2000. The methodology aims to replicate the data and sampling techniques of an earlier 2000 study, using a purposive sample which is suitable for especially informative cases (p. 269). An email survey using both open and closed questions was circulated, resulting in forty seven replies, which equates to a response rate of 61 per cent (p. 269). Both

Research proposal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Research proposal - Assignment Example Talking about the social networking sites, it can be said that the growth of the social networking sites has been largely augmented by the tremendous favoring of the growth prospects of the United States. Like as witnessed in the case of dotcom bubble of the late 1990’s, the mere presence of the social networking sites in the virtual web space does not help in any way in the process of generating revenue. Every social networking site needs to operate on the basis of a business model, which will help in generating revenue for the online business. It is of significant and utmost importance to mention that the business models that are applicable in the case of social networking sites should not only focus on the process of generating monetary value, but also on the lines value creation, identification of the core competencies of the online business as well as proper value communication to the right target audience. Considerable amount of interest also needs to be given on the lin es of creating competitive edge for the online business. It is of considerable importance to mention that an online business is built on four key model components. The first one is the value creation, which distinguishingly addresses the value that will be provided to the customers. The second factor is the issue of target market, which necessarily takes into account the factor of the desired target audience. The third aspect talks about the factor of core competencies which will help in leveraging maximum advantage in regards to the process of generating the business model’s potential strengths and opportunities in the market. The final aspect talks about the revenue prospects that need to be idealized for the purpose of developing the potential business aspects of the online business model (Albarran, 2013, p. 62- 63). It is important to mention that in most cases, though the online media provides free access and use of its online web 2.0 concepts, yet it can be said that th e revenue is generated through the process of cost per impression (CPI), cost per contact (CPC), advertising, lead generation and even licensing deals. However, it is of considerable importance to mention that the technological devices are riding the wave of innovation and are increasingly transforming themselves in regards to shape and size. The bulky laptop and PC has paved the way for tablets and smart phones, thereby playing a major role in regards to device space and capacity. Business models of the online nature in order to keep their connect with the tech savvy masses increasingly are concentrating on the process of adopting their visual offerings of their online products and services. Due to the changing requirements of today’s technological gadget altering masses, the business models are being designed in the platforms of open source (Hinchcliffe and Kim, 2012, p. 8). It needs to be highlighted that the literature review forms a very essential and vital part of the e ntire research proposal. It can be said that while considering the process of moving ahead with the literature review area, a considerable amount of focus needs to be given on the research work that has been done by the past researchers on the same lines. While discussing about literature review, it can be said that the literature review might have been presented from various perspectives of

Land Degradation In The Nile River Basin Environmental Sciences Essay

Land Degradation In The Nile River Basin Environmental Sciences Essay Per capita availability is generally calculated by dividing total annual renewable water resources with population. While this could provide an accurate picture for countries with no dependency on external water resources, it does not provide an accurate depiction for countries with trans-boundary water resources. Taking into account the dependency ratio of the countries provides a much more realistic depiction of future water resources. For instance, Uganda has a 40.9% dependency ratio for its total annual renewable water resources (Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, DRC and Kenya contribute runoff into Lake Victoria). This will be impacted when increased water demand in upstream nations results in reduced water runoffs into Uganda. Egypt which originally had a 98% dependency ratio has been able to bring down its dependency by increasing alternate water resources but still has a 76% dependency ratio (55.5 BCM out of 73 BCM). Chapter 4 Land degradation is one of the challenges faced by several countries in the Nile River Basin. Land degradation comprises of any negative or undesirable change in the texture, content, moisture of land due to a combination of natural hazards and man-made activities. The African continent is characterized by 46% of extreme desert and 11% of land mass that is humid. Presently, in Africa around 250 million people are directly affected by land degradation while, worldwide 1 billion people in 100 countries are at risk of land degradation. The causes of land degradation are a combination of changes in the natural ecosystem, and the impact of the human social system, including human use and abuse of sensitive and vulnerable dry land ecosystems. Land Degradation in the Nile River Basin In Rwanda, around 71% of total land area is facing severe degradation and about 60% of its forest cover has been lost in the last two decades partly due to genocide, displacement and repatriation. Similarly, more than 30% of Burundi is severely or very severely degraded. In Tanzania, widespread land degradation is found in the highlands, especially on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Kenya faced about 30% land degradation in 2002 and around one third of its population was directly dependent on degraded land by 2008. Also, land degradation is widespread in Kenya, affecting 20% of all cultivated areas, 30% of forests, and 10% of grasslands. Uganda faces land degradation and erosion covering 60% of its total land area, the majority of which is in the highlands of the South-west. Ethiopia also faces land degradation mostly in its highlands, especially in the Amhara region. It is estimated that Ethiopia loses 4% of its GDP due to land degradation. In Sudan, approximately 1,200,000 km2 of land has degraded in varying degrees. The most degraded zones are the arid and semi-arid regions in the Northern half of Sudan where 76% of the countrys population resides. In Egypt, the North-western delta faces highest degradation due to contamination and increased salinity. Common Causes of Land Degradation in the Nile River Basin Some of the causes for land degradation in the Nile River Basin are as follows: Population Pressure: Growing population in the Nile River Basin countries puts immense pressure on land and its resources leading to severe degradation and reduced outputs. For instance, the majority of the population in Egypt and Burundi, 98% and 58% respectively, live in the Nile Basin. In Kenya, 70% of the population lives in 12% of the countrys land area which is suitable for rain-fed cultivation, thereby putting immense stress on its resources. Deforestation: The most common cause for land degradation in the Nile River Basin is deforestation. To adhere to the needs of growing population, forests are cleared and there is immense pressure on its resources. In Rwanda, the forest area was reduced to 4700 km2 from 7000 km2 post the genocide in 1994. Deforestation also took place due to increased need for wood to construct makeshift shelters for displaced people and for cooking. Bushfires have also become common especially in the dry seasons in the Eastern and South-eastern regions of Umutara, Kibungo and Bugesera. In Burundi, the rate of deforestation in high due to increased dependency on wood for fuel. The forest cover declined from 11.3% in 1990 to 5.9% in 2005. In Tanzania, deforestation is severe in areas populated with refugee populations. Also, wild fire is common in its grasslands. Between 1990 and 2005, Uganda lost one-third of its forest area due to deforestation. It is estimated that at this rate, Uganda will not have any forests by 2055. Uganda loses around $ 200 million annually due to deforestation. Deforestation is a major factor for land degradation in Ethiopia. While the forests once covered 65% of the country and 90% of the highlands in Ethiopia, by 2001 they were reduced to 2.2% and 5.6% respectively. The Blue Nile basin faces such severe deforestation that very little forest cover remains in the region. The forest coverage fell from 16% to 2% in the 1980s itself. Over Grazing: The demand for livestock is high in the Nile River Basin. Cattle farming leads to over grazing in fertile lands, depleting its quality and productivity. In Rwanda, over grazing is observed in range-lands especially in the North-west parts of Umutara. In Tanzania, over grazing is witnessed mostly in the Lake Victoria Zone and parts of Northern Tanzania. Over grazing accounts for 75% of the total degraded land in Sudan. In Uganda, the cattle corridor has most of its land degraded due to over grazing from Moroto and Kotido in the North-east through Luwero and South to Masaka and Mbarara. Leaving aside the North, most of the Corridor is seriously degraded. Lack of Awareness: Improper farming practices, poor soil management policies due to lack of awareness also lead to land degradation in the Nile River Basin. For instance in Rwanda, only 36.6% of the total land had soil protection structures in 2005 as compared to 83% in 1998. Climate Change: Climate change is another factor due to which there is immense land degradation. Increasing instances of floods and droughts lead to wide spread land degradation. There are various forms of land degradation. These include Soil erosion and sedimentation Surface runoff and floods Desertification and loss of natural vegetation Sand encroachments Sedimentation and Soil Erosion Sedimentation has three stages. It starts with soil erosion which is essentially the removal of top soil which is then transported and deposited in different locations depending upon the flow of water or wind or gravity. Some of the causes of sedimentation include deforestation which reduces water retention thereby increasing soil erosion; floods and droughts; and changes in river flow. Sedimentation in the Nile River Basin is witnessed the most in the Nile Equatorial Region, Blue Nile catchment and the coastal belts. Wide spread deforestation has a detrimental impact on the sedimentation levels in the Nile Equatorial Lakes and leads to increasing soil erosion. The siltation of the Nile Equatorial Lakes if combined with unusually high rainfall could lead to a rise in the lake levels which could in turn lead to flooding. The key problem sites for soil erosion in the Lake Victoria Basin are the Kagera River and the Nyando River in Kenya. Due to its topography and torrential rainfall, the Blue Nile catchment faces high rates of sedimentation as compared to the White Nile, whose sedimentation is largely retained in the Equatorial Lakes and the Sudd region. While the Nile catchment runoff is estimated at a low rate of 5.5%, the ratio of the runoff of the Blue Nile catchment on its own is 20%. Sedimentation has a negative effect on reservoirs built along the Nile River Basin. It clogs the area thereby reducing the amount of water that can be stored. Rwanda Around 40% of land in Rwanda is at high risk of erosion, 37% requires soil retention measures before cultivation, and only 23% is erosion free. Data from field research stations report soil losses between 35 246 tonnes per hectare annually, amounting to losses costing about 3.5% of Rwandas agricultural GDP. The Nyamitera River delivers 567,000 tonnes of particles in a matter of five flood days to Rwanda, of which more than half is the annual suspended sediment yield of its Nile Basin region. Increasing use of land for tea cultivation is also leading to sedimentation in Rwanda. The Mulindi tea plantation in Gicumbi district uses fertilizers that cause soil degradation, water pollution and deforestation, which in turn results in soil erosion, floods and sedimentation in the valley. Burundi Deforestation, over grazing and agricultural expansion into marginal lands are the main factors leading to soil erosion in Burundi. The sediment yield of Burundi and its contribution to the Nile basin is presently unavailable. Sedimentation causes many problems in Burundi including blocking inlet channels of pump irrigation schemes, clogging hydropower turbine areas, corroding pumps among others. Tanzania The main type of erosion witnessed in the Lake Victoria Basin in Tanzania is sheet erosion where a uniform thin layer of top soil is washed away. In Tanzania, 61% of land area faces soil erosion with a topsoil loss of 100 tonnes per hectare per annum. Highest soil loss within the Lake Victoria Basin is from cropland which loses 93 tonnes per hectare annually, followed by rangeland losing 52 tonnes per hectare each year. Additionally, there has been soil loss in Shinyanga, Dodoma, Morogoro, and Arusha. Also, Kagera Basin is vulnerable to soil erosion and leaching of nutrients due to its high population and poverty levels. The Masalatu Reservoir constructed on Simiyu River receives an annual sedimentation yield of 406 m3/ km2 or 1.43 tonnes per hectare. Kenya The Nyanza province bordering Lake Victoria is undergoing rapid catchment deterioration due to frequent droughts, deforestation and old agricultural practices. This results in Kenyas high sedimentation load contribution to Lake Victoria Basin through its tributaries. 61% of the basin area contributes to soil sedimentation at a rate of 43 tonnes per hectare each year, whereas the rest of the basin forms a sink area where sediments are collected. Due to high sedimentation on the bed, the rivers Nyando, Nzoia and Sondu, and other tributaries emptying into Lake Victoria are prone to flooding. Surface runoff in wet season causes sheet, rill and gully erosion. Wind causes erosion in dry season. Nyando River experiences severe gully erosion due to heavy water runoff. The removal of the top soil is very high ranging from 90 tonnes per hectare annually in degraded areas, to 67 tonnes per hectare elsewhere. Uganda Major source of soil erosion to the Lake Victoria Basin is the Kibale River at 0.06 tonnes per hectare annually. Runoff in sub-catchment of Bukora is the main reason for causing soil erosion. Soil loss rates are the highest on bare soils, followed by annually cultivated land, degraded range lands and perennially cultivated land. Lake Albert is also under threat of siltation due to inflows from Kyoga Nile, as well as Semliki River which carries sedimentation from DRC. It is estimated that 4% 12% of GNP is lost from environmental degradation, of which 85% is through soil erosion, nutrient loss and crop changes. Also, the rate of soil fertility depletion in Uganda is one of the highest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ethiopia There is high erosion in the Ethiopian Highlands. Around 1900 million tonnes of soil is eroded annually at an average of 100 tonnes per hectare. Also, up to one billion tonnes of top soil is lost each year. The Highlands face severe types of soil erosion including sheet, rill, gully and wind. It also witnesses stream bank erosion, biological, physical and chemical degradation Blue Nile is the major contributor of sedimentation during the flood season, contributing approximately 125 million tonnes, while the Atbara contributes roughly 50 million tonnes. The flows of the Blue Nile are unregulated until they arrive in Sudan leading to an enormous amount of sedimentation at the Roseires Dam. With increased deforestation and agricultural activities along the banks of the Blue Nile, there is a substantial amount of debris added to the flow which is carried downstream. The proportion of runoff to sedimentation is higher for the Atbara River which is due to its geographic location in a drier region than the Blue Nile and also due to a relatively longer period of dry season followed by heavy rainfall in a relatively short period. Sedimentation peaks three weeks before rainfall peaks as rainfall washes away soil loosened due to loss of moisture during the dry season. A decline in crop yields has been witnessed at a rate of 1 to 3% on cropland and 2.2% in Ethiopian highlands. It is estimated that the cost of land degradation due to soil erosion to Ethiopia could be about $2 billion in 25 years or $80 million each year. About 80% of the losses are from reduced crop production and 20% from reduced livestock production. Soil nutrient depletion reduces crop production by 885,330 tonnes annually amounting to losses of around 14% of agricultural contribution to Ethiopian GDP. Sudan Soil erosion is leading to rapid siltation and loss of functionality of reservoirs and irrigation schemes in Sudan. The small reservoirs get silted quicker. Irrigation schemes are witnessing major damage due to siltation which is leading to a reduction in water transported to crop lands. For instance, crop water requirements are no longer met in the Gezira and Rahad irrigation schemes. River band erosion along the Blue Nile River has been witnessed with most affected areas lying downstream of Roseires Dam, Singa to AlSuki. River widening in the region also leads to bank erosion where irrigable land is lost as has been witnessed in the main Nile and Atbara River sections. Around $1.5 million worth of economic losses have been witnessed via the loss of mature date palm trees as a direct result of bank erosion. Egypt The Nile Bank is witnessing bank erosion due to the corrosive action of sediment free waters as witnessed in Sudan past Roseires Dam. Agricultural land is depleting at a rate of 13,000 hectares on an annual basis due to bank erosion. Increase in coastal erosion and extensive erosion of the Nile Delta is being witnessed due to lack of sedimentation and increase in salinity levels. Sedimentation in Reservoirs Sedimentation is the single greatest problem reservoirs face in maintaining their functionality for water storage, as well as for hydropower generation. Hydropower generation is reduced during peak sedimentation periods as debris gets caught in the turbines and need to be shut down for cleaning. Sedimentation stuck in the cooling mechanism of the hydropower plant leads to loss of efficiency in energy generation and also requires shutdown for repair. Also, silt adds to the wear and tear of the plant which decreases the lifespan of the machinery, depending on the abrasiveness of the mineral content in the silt. Hydropower generation is often stalled during floods to clean turbines and prevent damage resulting in very low power generation during flood season. Sedimentation also leads to reduced water storage capacity which results in less water for irrigation and cost of construction to raise the dam to maintain storage capacity. Currently, the cost of clearing sedimentation is prohibitive at $625 million ($5 to clear 1 m3 of silt, about 125 MCM is being cleared per year). Roseires Dam The primary mandate of the Roseires Dam is to ensure that runoff levels are maintained to meet irrigation and water storage requirements. The Roseires Dam is losing considerable parts of dead water storage capacity, as well as live storage capacity. In 1966, its storage capacity was 3,329 MCM which has been reduced to 1,920.89 MCM as of 2007, leading to a 37% decrease in storage capacity. The Roseires Dams height has been elevated in order to mitigate losses in functionality and another elevation project is being currently discussed. Aswan High Dam in Egypt Aswan High Dam has 100% trap efficiency of sedimentation which means that waters are almost perfectly sediment-free beyond the Aswan High Dam. Sedimentation transported to the reservoir and deposited there is practically negligible from December to June, peaking from July to September, reducing in October and November to none in December. Aswan High Dam is losing considerable part of live storage capacity, as opposed to dead storage capacity which was designed to absorb sedimentation. The reservoirs total operational span has been reduced to 362 years from an initial estimate of 500 years as a result of sedimentation. Desertification The African continent, with the Sahara desert in the North and the Sahelian belt below, is vulnerable to desertification. This condition is exemplified with increasing instances of drought and famines. The causes of desertification are complex, including both direct and indirect factors such as: Cultivation, inappropriate agricultural practices and overgrazing Unsustainable animal husbandry and pastoralism Climate change including reduced rainfall Population growth pressures Poor land use and management practices Lack of soil and water conservation structures; Removal and loss of vegetation; Deforestation and land clearing; Total dependency on natural resources for survival; Human activities comprising technological agents (water pumps, boreholes, dams) and institutional mechanisms and policies. Desertification in the Nile River Basin East and South-east regions of Rwanda show increasing desertification trends due to increase in population and migration leading to over exploitation and degradation of land. People from densely populated provinces in the North, for instance Ruhengiri, Gisenyi and Byumba, and Butare and Gitarama in the South, are moving towards the least populated provinces in the East including Umutara, Kibungo, Kigali and Ngali in the South East. In Burundi, the area of Imbo witnesses long dry spells leading to a gradual decrease in water resources, especially in the levels of Lake Tanganyika with a tendency towards desertification. Since 1999, there has been a strong variability of rainfall with a tendency for a long dry season from May to October (6 months) in the lower altitude outlying areas like Kumoso, Bugesera, and Imbo. In Tanzania, the main reason for desertification is expanding agriculture rather than overgrazing by pastoralists. Around 33% of Tanzania is affected by desertification. The coastal areas face pressure from intensive cultivation and fuel wood gathering. In Kenya, 80% of its area is estimated to be threatened by desertification with up to 30% of the population affected by desertification and drought. Drought and increasing population are key factors that enhance desertification in Kenya. The Nyika Plateau and the Coastal Region are affected and threatened most by desertification. Also, the woodlands are prone to drought and desertification, primarily due to slash and burn methods of land preparation. Kenyas drylands occupy 88% of the land surface area, and have a population of 10 million people. Approximately 50% of livestock and 70% of wildlife are located in these drylands. In Uganda, the North-east, especially the Cattle Corridor has been witnessing overgrazing, soil compaction, erosion and the emergence of low-value grass species and vegetation which have subdued the lands productive capacity, leading to desertification. Some dryland districts like Moroto, Nakasongola, Karamoja and Kakuuto in Rakai are experiencing desertification. Around 71% of Ethiopian land is prone to desertification including its highlands and lowlands. The Rift Valley suffers immense desertification and land degradation. Desertification threatens Ethiopias agricultural productivity, wherein more than 80% of the population depends on various forms of agricultural production. Also, 95% of the farms are small-scale and depend on rain-fed agriculture. Ethiopia suffers a loss of $139 million per year due to reduced agricultural productivity. Sudan and parts of Egypt are more prone to desertification in the Nile River Basin. Egypt has experienced accelerated desertification of rangelands in the last few decades. Presently, 45% of rangelands are severely degraded, 35% are fair, 15% are good, and 5% are excellent. It is reported that 11,000 hectares of land has been lost due to desertification. Parts of Western Egypt fall into the Sahara and are hot and dry areas which are extending into the mainland. Increasing evaporation has also led to drying out of one of the Toshka Lakes. Egypt witnesses various forms of desertification such as: Degradation of irrigated farmland due to low quality water in irrigation Degradation of rain-fed farmland (Northern coastal belt and Northern Sinai) Degradation of rangeland (Northern coastal belt) through overgrazing, plant covers degradation Sand Encroachments from the Western desert on the Nile Valley land (Southern Egypt) and on the High Aswan Dam reservoir (in Egypt and Sudan). Desertification in Sudan In terms of desertification, Sudan is the largest and most seriously affected country in Africa. The arid and semi-arid lands cover an area of 1.78 million km2, constituting around 72% of the total area of the country. There is moderate to severe land degradation in the desert and semi-arid regions in the Northern half of Sudan. The Western part of Sudan (in the Sahel region) is most prone to drought and increasing desertification, especially the states of Darfur, Kordofan, Khartoum and Kassala. The total desertification between Darfur and Kordofan is 22% i.e. 200,000 km2. A decline in precipitation has caused a stress factor on pastoral societies in these two regions, thereby contributing to conflict. There is a very strong link between land degradation, desertification and conflict in Darfur. In northern Darfur, increasing population growth, lack of resources and environmental stress led to conflicts which were further sustained by political, tribal or ethnic differences. As a consequence of desertification in Darfur, there has been increased mortality due to famine and disease, a decrease in total water and land availability, quality of water and land (including fertility), production of major staple foods, and deaths of domestic animals. It is estimated that since the 1930s, there has been around 50 to 200 km Southward shift of the boundary between semi-desert and desert. This boundary is expected to continue to move Southwards due to declining precipitation. The remaining semi-desert and low rainfall savannah, which represent 25% of Sudans agricultural land, are at considerable risk of further desertification and could lead to a 20% drop in food production. Sand Encroachment Instances of desert encroachment in Sudan are increasing, whereby the entire strip of the country along the Nile especially between Delgo and Karima in Northern Sudan is threatened. Sand dunes on the Eastern bank of River Nile in Sudan and encroachments in North-central regions can threaten the rivers course. Sand encroachment is also affecting the productivity of soil which has been witnessed extensively in the Gezira scheme and also in some areas of North Kordofan, North Darfur and Kannar in the Northern State, Sudan. In the Dongola-Merowe region of Sudan, the area covered by sand dunes increased from 51.2 km2 to 61.2 km2 between 1976 and 1996 and decreased to 35.1 km2 in 2000. This decrease could be attributed to an increase in the area covered by gravel and/or coarse sand. In Egypt, active sand dunes and encroachments occupy more than 16.6% of the countrys total land area. Sand encroachment in Egypt is further enhanced by the erratic rainfall, active winds, and scarcity of plant cover. Some inactive sand accumulations have been noticed in the Eastern side of the Nile delta and in the Sinai Peninsula. Types of Desertification Processes Underway in Sudan Climate-based conversion of land types from semi-desert to desert The least drought resistant vegetation fails to survive and reproduce. For instance, in Northern Darfur and Northern Kordofan, this is manifest in the widespread death of trees during drought events which are not followed by recovery. The desert climate is estimated to move Southward by approximately 100 km over 40 years. Degradation of existing desert environments, including wadis and oases At least 29% of Sudan is desert, within which there are hundreds of smaller wetter regions resulting from localized rainfall catchments, rivers and groundwater flows. It was discovered that all these areas were moderately to severely degraded, primarily due to deforestation, overgrazing and erosion. Conversion of land types from semi-desert to desert by human action Activities such as deforestation, overgrazing and cultivation result in habitat conversion to desert, even though rainfall may be sufficient to support semi-desert vegetation. One of the problems is the conversion of dry and fragile rangelands into traditional and mechanized cropland. Chapter 5 Water Quality Several factors pollute Nile waters, in particular faecal coliform bacterial contamination caused by lack of sanitation facilities and a high dependence on pit latrines, leading to presence of animal and human waste alongside open water bodies. Additionally, agricultural fertilizers and pesticides discharge high concentrations of nutrients and phosphates that runoff and leak into ground and surface water. Also, chemical pollution from industrial waste, mining activities and domestic sewage are released into water bodies without any effective wastewater treatment. Furthermore, sedimentation and siltation caused by deforestation, land degradation and soil erosion impact overall water quality. Lastly, poor planning practices, weak infrastructure and inadequate wastewater treatment systems add to the untreated water discharge. Some of the impacts of water pollution are death and destruction, loss of livelihood and income, and health hazards. The problem with a transboundary water resource in terms of water quality is that, polluted water from one area flows into the other area. This is specially witnessed in the Lake Victoria Basin. Water Hyacinth is another transboundary issue between the countries as it has a tendency of spreading fast and also leads to increased evaporation. Pollutant loads are washed away along with runoff and sedimentation loads which lead to water quality deterioration further downstream, rendering it non-viable for drinking purposes. Rwanda The main sources of water pollution are domestic, commercial, industrial, agriculture, water hyacinth and mismanagement of wetlands. Due to increased population and agricultural practices, inadequate sanitation facilities, there is an extensive use of fertilizers and pesticides. Also, wastewater from rural towns and villages containing faecal pollution are left untreated, giving rise to water borne diseases. In River Nyabugogo, there have been high rates of Iodine at 7.62m per litre. Additionally, there are large concentrations of Copper at 1.3mg per litre, Fluoride at 1.85mg per litre, Ammonia at 1.7mg per litre and Sodium at 105.3mg per litre. Also, Hexavalent Chromium was found ranging between 0.09 to 0.28 ÃŽÂ ¼g per litre. Although the Rwandan Ministry of Lands, Environment, Forest, Water Mines (MINITERE) and ELECTROGAZ have laboratories in place for water monitoring, the data is insufficient. The water drinking standards have been defined but have not been adopted yet. As a result of eutrophication by water hyacinth and agricultural pressure, Lakes Mihindi and Muhazi in Southern Rwanda are diminishing in size. Burundi There are several types of water pollution including bacteriological pollution from animal waste, organic pollution due to waste effluent from coffee processing plants, and industrial pollution via chemical fertilizers such as nitrates, phosphates and pesticides. Some of the causes of pollution are high demographic density, lack of latrines and waste dumping, and mining activities resulting in discharge of heavy metals and arsenic, especially in River Kanyarus tributary, Nowgere. Bujumbura accounts for 90% of industries in Burundi. However, data regarding industrial pollution is unavailable and not much has been achieved in monitoring and managing water quality due to under-resourcing of laboratories. Tanzania The water quality in Tanzania is affected by natural factors and human activities. The former comprises high fluoride concentrations and salinity in natural waters. The latter includes discharge of municipal and industrial wastewater, run-off from agricultural lands, and erosion encompassing high concentrations of nutrients, pathogens, BOD and COD levels. Additionally, gold mines in the Lake Victoria Basin consist of heavy metal pollution. Tanzania has no comprehensive national program for monitoring the quality of water or pollution even though water utility companies are required by law to monitor the water source and quality of water they supply. Kenya Water pollution in Kenya is caused by point and non-point sources such as agricultural activity, urbanization, industry, leachates from solid waste tips, sediments, salts, fertilizers and pesticide residues. Additionally, municipal sewerage plants discharge untreated wastewater into surface watercourses, causing significant health hazards and localized eutrophication. Tanneries, pulp and paper mills, coffee processing factories, breweries and sugar cane processing facilities do not have effective wastewater treatment plants and their effluents contribute organic loads, heavy metals and other toxic substances. The point pollution sources include sugar, paper, and fish industries, and also municipal sewage, oils and lubricants, marine workshops, petrol stations, human wastes and refuse from market and urban centres and fishing villages. The main non-point pollution sources comprise high nitrate, phosphate and pesticides from poor application of agricultural chemical and soil erosion. The Kenyan Lake Victoria Basin has a population of 12 million people and a low depth of approximately 6 meters, thereby causing an inability of catchment areas to perform purification of water. Although only 8% of Lake Victoria falls into Kenyan territory, tributaries such as Sio, Nzoia, Yala, Nyando and Mara are already severely polluted and contribute further to the lake pollution. Uganda The increased demand and use of pesticides, fungicides, herbicides and fertilizers is impacting the water quality in Uganda. Agricultural practices account for 50% of nitrogen and 56% of phosphorus into the Lake Victoria Basin. Additionally, the exploitation of petroleum threatens the overall ecosystems of Lake Albert and Edward Basins. The Northern end of Lake George, Uganda, and its associated wetlands receive localized metal pollution from a former copper mine and tailings left after metal extraction. There is a

Charles Dickens Essay

Belle says: â€Å"Our contract is an old one. It was made when we were both poor and content to be so†¦ † Dickens shows that they were content when they were poor. â€Å"You are changed. When it was made you were another man. † Dickens shows that since Scrooge has got wealthy he has changed. Dickens uses Italics on â€Å"are† to show that Belle is very certain that Scrooge has changed. Belle continues saying that Scrooge has changed and also that he was different when he was poor. Dickens uses this to show Scrooge how he has changed and that he was different before. Belle also says: â€Å"But if you were free today†¦ Can even I believe that you would choose a dowerless girl-you who in your very confidence with her, weigh everything by Gain†¦ † Dickens uses this sentence to show that Scrooge would not be with Belle if she wasn’t rich. Belle then says, â€Å"A very, very brief time, and you will dismiss the recollection of it gladly, as an unprofitable dream†¦ † This implies that because this event isn’t profitable, Scrooge will forget about it quickly and â€Å"†¦ From which it happened well that you awoke. † Implies that he thinks it is good that he can forget about it leave it without any loss. The second incident involves 3 people trading Scrooges belongings after he is dead in the 4 stave. Firstly Dickens describes the narrow, haunted streets that the ghost takes Scrooge by using adjectives such as, â€Å"Naked, drunken, slipshod, ugly. † Dickens uses many adjectives at a time throughout this book to help better describe the scene. He is persuading the reader that where the ghost and Scrooge are visiting isn’t pleasant. Dickens describes the shop as, â€Å"†¦ Den of, infamous resort, there was a lowbrowed, beetling shop below a penthouse roof, where iron, old rags, bottles, bones, and greasy offal were bought. † Objects in which we would not really want to purchase and these objects imply hideousness into the scene. Dickens keeps the reader guessing because the conversation the three people are having starts off by not telling too much information and shows that this affair is frequent in occurrence. The woman gives a clue to the reader by saying, â€Å"That’s enough. Who’s the worse for the loss of a few things like these? Not a dead man, I suppose? † Immediately the reader figures out that these people are talking about a dead man. The woman describes the dead man as a â€Å"Wicked old screw†. The reader gets a little bit more information on who the dead man is and dickens uses these techniques to keep the reader guessing. The people are sarcastic and cold; these features make the reader despise these people. The woman says something that provokes scrooge into thinking that they could be talking about him, â€Å"This is the end of it, you see! He frightened everyone away from him when he was alive, to profit us when he was dead! † There is irony here because it shows all the money Scrooge greedily gathered was of no purpose or use because he is dead. Scrooge starts to realize that they could be talking about him. My third incident is where the ghost takes Scrooge to the graveyard and shown his own tombstone, this incident is also in the fourth stave. Dickens starts describing the graveyard by calling it â€Å"A worthy place† which is ironic because this graveyard is not looked after and is a place where people are buried and then forgotten. Dickens carries on describing it: â€Å"Walled in by houses; choked up with too much burying; fat with repleted appetite. A worthy place. † Again Dickens describes it as â€Å"A worthy place† and describing the graveyard as an unvisited place. Dickens shows that Scrooge wasn’t looked after well and just forgotten after he died. Dickens starts to create tension: â€Å"Scrooge crept towards it, trembling†¦ † The reader is caught up in the tension reading on to find out who’s name is on the tombstone. Dickens still describes everything: â€Å"†¦ Neglected grave†¦ † Suddenly Scrooge realizes everything and is showing despair: † ‘Am I that man who lay upon the bed? ‘ he cried upon his knees. † He is desperate and shocks the ghost: â€Å"Tight clutching at it’s robe† Scrooge begins to show signs of change and declares: â€Å"I will honour Christmas in my heart, and try to keep it all the year. I will live in the Past, the Present, and the Future. † Dickens uses language brilliantly by Scrooge saying that he â€Å"Will honour†¦ † and also that he â€Å"Will live†¦ † He is making a strong statement that he will change. In a desperate plea he asks the Ghost, â€Å"Oh, tell me I may sponge away the writing on this stone! † Dickens still is creating tension and is further showing Scrooges anxiety: â€Å"In his agony†¦ † Dickens creates a tension cliffhanger and leaves the reader guessing and wondering, has Scrooge been saved? In my conclusion this novel is a masterpiece in which Charles Dickens creates a simple story that is easy to understand and follow. Dickens uses many adjectives in one go to best describe an object. He creates a great amount of tension in this book and manages to keep the story warm and exciting. His clever use of language ensures the reader is always kept guessing but interested.

The Role of Leadership in Organisational Change

In discussing the role of leadership in organisational change, one must first understand the rudiments of leadership and theories that surround it, understand what change is and the essential qualities that a leader must possess to bring about change.Defining LeadershipThere is much literature and research in the areas of leadership and management with many writers differentiating the two. A common conclusion is that a good manager may not be a good leader. So what is the difference between them? French, R., et al, (2011) says that while managers engage in solving problems and supervising work, leaders do not just instruct people on what to do. Leaders inspire and motivate the people who follow and support them thereby creating opportunities for the long-term. An environment where leadership is mentioned a lot and developed is the military. However, the command-and-control â€Å"leadership† where an officer barks orders to his troops is not leadership because he is legally aut horised to do it (Cohen, 2010).In support of this, Buchanan and Huczynski (1985) say that it is a â€Å"social process† where one person influences other’s behaviours without using threats of violence. By the latter definition, we can surmise that what goes on in the army is certainly far from leadership as threats are a way of life in the military! In the case of the military officer, he is said to be endowed with Formal Leadership, giving him formal authority over his men. When a staff has access to resources, information or has specialised skills, he may be viewed as an Informal Leader as he exerts influence over others who may not be their subordinates nor even be in the same department as them (French, et al, 2011).So, while managers make things happen because the company says they are authorised to do so, leaders achieve the company’s objectives by influencing their colleagues or subordinates to co-operate (Rosen Bach & Taylor, 1993). Lussier & Achua (2007 ) say that mutual influence between a leader and those he leads reach their organisational goals by making changes together. According to Fielder (1967), the acid test of a leader is his ability to achieve greater performance for his organisation. Hence, studies of leadership must be related to how the leader improves management control strategies and how he regulates work place behaviour (Thomson & McHugh,  2002).According to Cohen (2010), there are 8 laws that he termed â€Å"universal laws† which forms the heart of leadership. Though these 8 things that leaders must do are simple, the absence of one can make a difference between success and failure. Although success cannot be guaranteed, abiding by these 8 laws, one can increase the chances of success: 1.Maintaining absolute integrity2.Being technically competent 3.Communicating expectations 4.Show exemplary commitment 5.Expect positive results 6.Looking after the interest of your people 7.Putting duty before self 8.Lead ing from the frontSECTION 2 : Theories on LeadershipAccording to Bass (1990), the three basic theories of leadership are the Trait Theory, Great Event Theory and Transformation Theory. Robbins (1996) had a different view and wrote that the three theories important to leadership development are Trait Theory, Behaviour Theory and Situational Theory. French, et al, (2011) summarised and divided the theories on leadership into 2 categories: Traditional Theories and New Theories. Traditional Theories are further grouped into Theories on leader traits and behaviours and situational leadership. New theories refer to Charismatic Leadership and Transformational Leadership. See diagram below.Trait theories on leadership were developed from research which tried to identify attributes that great leaders were born with which differentiates them from non-leaders. How effective these leaders are depends on the influence the leader wields over his subordinate’s performance, satisfaction and overall effectiveness (Derue, et al, 2011). Galton’s (1869) view that these immutable traits are only found in leaders born with them and they cannot be developed has been challenged and criticized by many for over a hundred years. However, research has continued on linking personality traits on effectiveness of leaders and showed that successful leaders possess  personality traits that impact their success.This helps organisations in their selection, training and development of potential leaders (Derue et al., 2011). In Bass’s (1990) Great Event Theory, leaders are created when great changes or crisis happen driving certain characteristics to be forged in individuals, enhancing their performance. This theory predisposes that leadership creation is still involuntary and not proactive unlike the Transformational Leadership Theory where anyone can learn skills on how to lead. It would appear that leaders are not ‘born’ but they are shaped by their environm ent, including upbringing and career. (French, et al, 2011)Criticisms of the trait theories led to the development of behaviour theories theorizing that actions and behaviour exhibited by a leader and not his personality is what identifies him as one. In late 1940s, University of Michigan conducted studies concluding that there are 2 types of leadership; Worker-oriented leadership and Task-oriented leadership. While the former is focussed on employee welfare, the latter concentrates on achievement of organisational objectives. Behavioural theory explains leadership vis-à  -vis the behaviour of leaders but does not consider the situation or the environment that the leader is operating in. The criticism is that given different situations, the same leadership behaviours may not be observed.Shortcomings of the behaviour theories led to Situational Contingency Theories of Fiedler (1967), House (1974), Hersey and Blanchard (1988) and Kerr and Jermier (1978). Horner (1997), a situational theorist, says that an effective leader should be able to adapt his leadership style according to the work situation he is in. The leadership styles identified by House’s (1974) Path-Goal theory are Directive, Supportive, Participative and Achievement-oriented styles. Contemporary leadership theorists like House (1974) and Conger and Kanungo (1998) researched on Charismatic Leadership.They wrote that certain attitudes and attributes can be bundled together to determine charisma in a leader. What they do and how they do it to influence the desired actions from their followers is how charismatic leaders are successful as leaders (French, et al, 2011). Charisma is a key component of transformational leadership and as such, many of its characteristics are also found in successful transformational leaders. So while charismatic leaders may not be transformational leaders, transformational leaders need to be charismatic to achieve their mission of change (DuBrin, 2010).DuBrin  (20 10) wrote that transformational leaders display attributes that distinguish them from others. Some attributes include charisma, high emotional intelligence, visioning skills, communication skills, give feedback, recognize subordinate’s achievements, practice empowerment, innovative and high moral reasoning. Bass (1990) distinguished between Transactional and Transformational leadership saying that the former has to do with daily communications and exchanges between a leader and his subordinates. This is usually task-based and routine. Transformational leadership, on the other hand, enables subordinates to broaden their goals and elevate performance beyond expectations with the use of charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individualised consideration.SECTION 3 : Organisational ChangeThe mother of all clichà ©s, â€Å"The only constant in life is change†, sums up rather neatly that all organisations, large or small, simple or complex, will face changes wi thin itself and in its environment. Writers have consensus that at this day and age, change is a much larger issue than decades past as the rate of change, especially for technological change, is increasing at an exponential rate (Balogun and Hope Hailey, 2004; Burnes, 2004; Senior, 2002). Being omni-present in organisations at all levels, the importance of the leader’s ability to assess its present stage, evaluate it against its desired state, define its performance gaps and plan organisational changes to reach the desired end cannot be emphasized more (Burnes, 2004).Burnes (2004) goes on to say that organisational strategy and change are inseparable. According to Moran and Brightman (2001), because of the continually changing needs of stakeholders internally and externally, a good leader will also be continuously planning the organisation’s direction, its capabilities and structure to meet those changes. Because organisational change is of paramount importance, the s kills that a leader must have to effect changes successfully are highly sought after (Senior, 2002). In fact, managers today may find that their primary task in an environment of globalisation, technological innovation, constantly changing demographics, deregulation and knowledge explosion, is to provide leadership for organisational change (Graetz, 2000)Organisational change can be planned or unplanned. Unplanned changes occur  spontaneously without any conscious effort on the part of the manager to effect change (French, et al, 2011). It is usually due to changes in the conditions of the environment and is reactive in nature. Planned change happens when the manager takes proactive measures to address a performance gap to get to desired outcomes that meet organisational goals and objectives. Although it is generally accepted that in a highly competitive environment, change is a necessity to survive, Balogun and Hope Hailey (2004) found that about 70 per cent of all plans for orga nisational change fail. According to Dunphy and Stace (1993), there are 4 characteristics in the scale of the change. They are Fine Tuning, Incremental Adjustment, Modular Transformation and Corporate Transformation.In Fine Tuning, the leader makes very small changes to processes, human capital, structure and strategy so they work coherently to reach the organisational goal. It is usually done within the divisional or departmental level and is referred to as convergent change (Nelson, 2003) Similar to fine tuning, Incremental Adjustment involves making slightly more changes to managerial processes, corporate strategies and structures but not to the extent of radical change (Senior, 2002). The difference is that the changes are bigger here. In Modular Transformation, the scale of change has move from being intra-departmental to departmental-wide or division-wide alignments.However, change in this category has not reached organisation-wide, which is discussed next. Major changes to ke y executives, restructuring of a division and downsizing a department are examples (Dunphy & Stace, 1993). Finally, Corporate Transformation which encompasses radical changes in mission, vision and core values, major strategic direction shifts, organisational restructuring and changes in top management and key appointments, is the largest of the 4 types of change (Dunphy & Stace, 1993). The key difference between corporate and modular transformations is that the former is organisation-wide, which means that every person in the organisation is affected. SECTION 4 : The Process of Change Beckhard & Gleicher (1969) wrote on a formula for change. This formula is sometimes referred to as Gleicher’s Formula. The formula shows the forces  that drive change and the aims to predict when change will be successful.This formula explains that leaders in an organisation need to be firstly, unhappy with how things are going and must know where they want to head towards. If D is absent, th en the organisation may be complacent and may not want to move from their position. D without V will mean that the organisation has no direction for change. Even if D and V are present, without taking the first positive step, change will just be an idea; hence, action must be taken.Therefore the product of D, V and F cannot be zero which means that any of the 3 values cannot be zero. If any of the 3 is absent, the drive to change will not overcome resistance. The other factor to consider is the magnitude of D, V and F against the magnitude of R. The product of D, V and F must be greater than R for there to be change. The greater the product, the greater the probability that change will happen. However, this formula does not guarantee that the change will be successful. For change to be successful, change leaders or change agents must have attributes to lead change.There are many reasons why people resist change and it usually has to do with the fear of the unknown. As a result, they will find ways to slow change down or sabotage it so it does not happen (Lines, 2004). Instead of trying to overcome resistance, leaders should take it as a form of feedback and understand why the employee perceives threats to win them over and achieve change objectives (French, et al, 2011).SECTION 5 : Phases of ChangeThe work of Kurt Lewin on phases of planned change is oft quoted and still very relevant today. He says that the 3 phases are â€Å"Unfreezing†, â€Å"Changing† and â€Å"Refreezing† and the leader should be sensitive in each of these phases (Lewin, 1952). â€Å"Unfreezing† or preparation phase prepares the ground for change. Leaders will have convinced themselves of a need for change using the Formula for Change. What they have to do now is to enable his followers to feel the same need and reduce resistance to change.French, et al, (2011) referred to this phase as similar to â€Å"generating energy for transformation† in Miles†™ (1997) framework for planned organizational change leadership. Lewin’s unfreezing phase also includes what Miles refers to as â€Å"Developing a vision of the future†. The leader needs to communicate this  vision effectively to his followers and ensure buy-in for his changes to succeed. The 8-stage process of change by Kotter (1996) lists the first 4 stages as : †¢Establishing a Sense of Urgency†¢Creating a Guiding Coalition †¢Developing a Vision and Strategy †¢Communicating the Change VisionKotter refers to these 4 stages as â€Å"defrosting† which essentially means unfreezing. He says that managers sometimes skip these 4 stages and go headlong into restructuring or downsizing and eventually face insurmountable roadblocks or change that is not sustainable, that is, change that will not stick. The next phase of change, â€Å"Changing†, according to Lewin (1952), refers to the nitty-gritty nuts and bolts of change like re-structur ing, re-organisation, reshaping culture, training and development to build competencies required to fulfil the new vision. According to Miles (1997), this is referred to as â€Å"aligning the internal context†. Kotter (1996), on the other hand, splits this phase into 3 more stages in his 8-stage process of creating major change: †¢Empowering Broad-based Action†¢Generating Short-term Wins †¢Consolidating Gains and Producing more ChangeLewin’s (1952) final phase, â€Å"Refreezing†, is where leaders evaluate results and either makes modifications to improve results from the change or reinforce outcomes for achieving change objectives. The purpose of refreezing is so that change can be permanent and will â€Å"stick†. Miles refers to this as â€Å"Creating a transformation process architecture† which involves having feedback and communication mechanisms, support, education mechanisms and coordination mechanisms. This stage coincides with Kotter’s final stage in his 8-stage process called â€Å"Anchoring New Approaches in the Culture†.SECTION 6 : Leadership and Organisational ChangeSetting direction, giving inspiration and ensuring that lasting change is implemented organisation-wide is a key role that all leaders play. Good leadership and management of change is a critical ingredient in organisational change because it is essentially a people issue and human nature is such that its first instinct is to resist change (Coburn, 2006). Lack of effort, too great a change over too short a time and emphasis on top management rather than engaging lower levels are key reasons for failure to execute change programmes (Manikandan, 2010).It is critical to understand that organizations consist of complex human interactions such that all intended change needs to be handled with sensitivity. Change initiatives fail not because of the lack of intelligent leaders or noble causes but due to the lack of emotional buy-in from stakeholders. So leaders of change need to have skills and competencies to ensure successful change initiatives. Buchanan & Boddy (1992) grouped 15 core competencies and skills into 5 clusters:Diagram 1 : Buchanan & Bodd’s Clustering of Skills and Competencies Buchanan & Boddy (1992) grouped the skills and competencies into clusters of activities. However, upon analysis, they can be grouped into 2 broad categories; Competencies & Attributes of good leaders and Communication & EQ Skills of good leaders. This is illustrated in the diagram below.Diagram 2 : Grouping Skills into Competencies and Skills Competencies & AttributesA successful leader must be sensitive to his environment, including but not limited to being aware of market conditions, intra-company politics, conflicting goals of different departments, how the sum of parts in an organisation works together to achieve its goals (helicopter viewpoint) and who the power brokers are within the organisation. Having thi s competency will enable the change leader to appraise the status quo and determine the gap that needs to be closed in order to reach the new vision. Hence, the leader’s comprehension and clarity of his vision will be enhanced. â€Å"Flexibility† and â€Å"Tolerance of ambiguity† might well be two sides of the same coin. Not all changes will go according to plan nor all reactions to change, especially resistance, are predictable.Hence, a good leader will have a fair amount of tolerance of the unknown and in exhibiting this, be flexible enough to modify his change plans to reach his objectives and to minimise resistance to change. Finally, the leader must have enthusiasm as he is the change agent. He is the champion of that change and if he cannot  show that he believes in it and is behind it 100%, he will not be able to get buy-in for it. Communication & EQ SkillsThe skills listed in this box are all related to skills in effective communications but tempered w ith a good measure of emotional quotient (EQ). As discussed above, the challenges in change management are mainly found in the management of people. Hence, EQ in communication is key to success. Effective communication where the message is conveyed accurately from the sender to the receiver is a basic requirement of any leader. However for a change leader, communicating while exercising EQ will make the message more acceptable to the recipient and hence enhance successful change.This is especially true when a leader wants to ‘sell’ the idea of change or when he ‘negotiates’ for a win-win solution to effect changes. He has to use all his ‘influence’ and exhibit charismatic leadership to win the support of his colleagues and subordinates. How he does this may be through the use of ‘motivation’. Using his EQ, the leader will be able to empathise with his subordinates and understand their fears and concerns know what motivates them and use this in his effort to garner support or reduce resistance.The leader needs to use his ‘networking’ skills to access resources within and outside the company in order to implement his change plan. One must not forget that in transformational change, everyone and every department in an organisation will be affected. Hence the leader cannot work in isolation. Finally, using ‘teambuilding’ skills, the leader can build a cohesive force to successfully implement all the changes that the organisation wants to put in place and make those changes stick or in the words of Lewin (1983), â€Å"Refreeze†.SECTION 7 : ConclusionFor over a century, behavioural scientists, psychologists and even sociologists have studied leadership, trying to define, explain and even predict situations when leadership qualities and attributes will be displayed. They have tried to explain if leadership is inborn or a result of the external environment. Whether it is inherent in p ersonality or whether it can be learnt and developed. Contemporary theorists conclude that although certain traits that are inborn are those found in great  leaders, other attributes of good leadership can indeed be developed.Organisational change, inescapable as it were, is a challenge for leaders. Leaders need to prepare the ground and communicate the changes needed to move the organisation forward (Unfreeze), make the changes with sensitivity and exercise EQ (Change) and get buy-in and support for the changes to make them stick (Refreeze). To execute change plans, leaders need to have the communication skills, EQ, competencies and attributes required for transformational change.